Saint John Chrysostom was the subject of the Spiritual Reading Group session held on Tuesday 15th of September in the Carmelite Library. The following introduction was given by Bata Bardak, a regular member of the Group.
“Let us praise in song the golden trumpet, the
instrument inspired by God, the inexhaustible ocean of doctrines, the support
of the Church, the heavenly mind, the depth of wisdom, the mixing bowl of solid
gold which pours out rivers of teachings that flow with honey and which waters
creation.”
Prosomoia of the
Stichera in Tone 4. As noble among Martyrs.
John Chrysostom is regarded as one
of the most prominent Greek fathers. A contemporary of St Augustine (354-430)
and St Jerome (c.347-420), he is recognized by both the Eastern and Western
churches as a Doctor of the Church. Today his Divine Liturgy is celebrated as
the regular Eucharistic service throughout the entire Eastern Christian world,
but he was also an eloquent and popular preacher and public speaker who
fearlessly denounced the corruption and abuse of authority by both
ecclesiastical and political leaders. His extant works include over three
hundreds exegetical homilies as well as other writings. The Greek epithet ‘chrysostomos’,
meaning ‘the golden mouth’, is indicative of the popularity and influence of
his preaching.
John was born in Antioch in c.347,
the son of Greco-Syrian parents. His father was a high-ranking military officer
who died shortly after his birth and he was brought up by his mother Anthusa.
Some sources describe Anthusa as a pagan but it is generally agreed she was a Christian.
In either case, John’s education began under the pagan teacher Libanius from
whom he developed his skills in rhetoric and an interest in Greek literature.
Later, as he grew older, he became a committed Christian and studied theology
at the School of Antioch.
In c.375 he withdrew to a life of
extreme asceticism, and according to tradition, committed the Bible to memory.
However, after two years as a hermit, ill health forced him to return to
Antioch where he was ordained as a deacon in 381, and as a priest in 386.
During the next twelve years, from 386 to 397 he became an increasingly popular
speaker at the cathedral of Antioch, known as the Golden Church. The most
important works from this period are his Homilies on various Biblical texts
which condemned the abuse of wealth and emphasised the importance of charitable
work for the welfare of the needy.
Many of John’s sermons were
delivered in series over an extended period. For example, his sermons on the
parable of Lazarus and the rich man were delivered in a series of seven ‘instalments’
over many months. The congregations were given advance notice of the texts
before each sermon so that they would come prepared for the topic of the day.
In a sense, these sermons can be viewed as short courses comprising lectures
and homework on a particular theme. Sometimes he interspersed one series of
sermons with another on a different theme.
John, with his former fellow student
Theodore, who later became bishop of Mopsuestia, was instrumental in developing
the Antiochene tradition of understanding Scripture that emphasized the
historical and literal meaning of the text and limited the use of allegorical
interpretation. This was in contrast to the Alexandrian practice of allegorical
interpretation developed by Origen (185-254) and his followers. John’s straightforward
understanding of the Scriptures provided practical explanations of how the
Scriptures could be applied to everyday life. (1)
In 397 John was appointed Archbishop
of Constantinople, having been nominated
without his knowledge. There are a number of accounts regarding his move to the
empire’s capital. One tradition has him being kidnapped after having been lured
out of Antioch on a false pretext. Another account describes him leaving
Antioch in secret amidst fears that the departure of such a popular figure
would cause civil unrest. What is clear is that John himself was not overjoyed
by this new appointment and accepted reluctantly. His time in Constantinople
was to prove tumultuous and ended in his being exiled twice, for despite his
popularity with the common people he earned the ire of the wealthy and the
clergy.
To appreciate John’s period in
Constantinople we need to take a brief look at the complex and sometimes
confusing events of the fourth century, a period in which Church-State relations
underwent profound changes, and when the capital of the Empire moved from Rome
to Constantinople (330 AD).
The Edict of Milan in 313, and the conversion of the emperor Constantine to
Christianity (2) transformed a persecuted sect
into a privileged institution identical with state power. This transformation
was received with mixed emotions that still echo today. Eusebius (c.264-340),
bishop of Caesarea and early Church historian, for example, greeted Constantine
with the words:
“Let the friend of the All-Ruling God be proclaimed
our sole sovereign…who has modelled himself after the archetypal form of the
Supreme Sovereign, whose thoughts mirror the virtuous rays by which he has been
made perfectly wise, good, just, pious, courageous and God-loving”. (3)
Eusebius saw Constantine’s rule as
the culmination of sacred history, identifying monarchy, the rule of one, with
monotheism. Jerome (c.347-420), on the other hand, referring to the increasing
worldliness of the Church of his day, comments that:
“The Church grew through persecution and was crowned
through martyrdom. But since the emperors have become Christian she has become
greater in riches and poorer in virtues.” (4)
Under imperial patronage, the Church
grew in wealth and could now own property, build churches and participate in
public life. Despite a brief set back in 361-363, when Julian the Apostate
attempted to reintroduce paganism, the Church’s favourable position became
firmly established within the Empire. As a result of its privileged position,
the Church was seen by some as offering attractive career paths which were
aggressively pursued. Eusebius tells us that some ambitious clergy even staged
coups, taking over churches by night and barricading themselves inside during
their illegal consecration to the episcopate. (5)
One of the first
tasks Constantine set himself was to establish a uniform doctrine of Christian
belief. Although general agreement on the canon of the New Testament had been
reached by the fourth century, the Early Christian communities still consisted
of independent Sees which differed somewhat in their teachings. The rise of
Arianism in c.320, which rejected the divine nature of Jesus, threatened to
divide Christians even further into warring camps. Constantine believed that a
united Christianity was crucial to a united Roman Empire. In 325 he convened what
was to become known as the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea. Significantly,
it was the emperor, not the bishops, who took control of church affairs. The
result was the Nicene Creed which was intended to define Christian belief.
However, while the bishops agreed on
the wording of the Creed, they differed on the interpretation of the words,
especially on the nature of Jesus. Far from uniting Christians, the outcome was
to divide Christians into various factions. Today, the passions aroused by
these disputes seem incomprehensible but at that time belonging to the “right”
party was often more important than actually practising Christian values. A second
Ecumenical Council was convened in Constantinople in 381 and the Nicene Creed
was revised in an attempt to appease the various groups. Unfortunately the
disputes continued and became increasingly bitter as secular political factions
aligned themselves with the rivalling groups. (6)
By the late
fourth century city life was fraught with dissent and rioting. On the one hand
there was the growing antagonism between the different Christian groups, and, on
the other, antagonism between Christians and pagans who were still in the
majority. Simultaneously, the disparity between the wealth and profligacy and
moral decline of the court and clergy, the overcrowding and disease amongst the
refugees pouring in from the borders, and unemployment and growing taxes
imposed on the citizenry, brought tensions to exploding point.
When John Chrysostom arrived in
Constantinople in 397, he refused to be drawn into the lavish social life of
the city and appears to have been completely underwhelmed by the emperor. He
set about reforming the clergy which made him unpopular. Visiting clergy hoping
to make an impression in the city, for example, were sent back to their
parishes without remuneration.
He was also blunt in his attack against the abuses and hypocrisy of the wealthy.
“Do you pay such honour to your excrements as to
receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of
God is perishing from cold?” (7)
One
can only imagine the ire with which such words were received.
Meanwhile John was enjoying immense
popularity amongst the common people as a preacher as well as a founder of
numerous philanthropic institutions. A recurring theme in his homilies was the
emphasis on care for the poor and disadvantaged. His homilies on the Gospel of
St Matthew, for example, emphasise the duty of the rich to lay aside their
wealth for the poor.
John, who was
born about twenty years after the first Ecumenical Council, and installed in
Constantinople sixteen years after the second Ecumenical council, encountered increasingly
violent rivalry between the orthodox and Monophysite factions. (8) He seems to have spent as much time dealing
with the various interest groups vying for power as he did to his episcopal duties. (9) While adhering
to the orthodox view on the nature of Christ, his emphasis on Christian
humility and compassion rather than hair splitting doctrines earned him the
respect of both factions. His Catechetical
or Easter Homily is an extraordinary example of inclusiveness in the true
Gospel tradition.
John often addressed the laxness of
Christians who preferred popular amusements such as horseracing over their
religious obligations. (10) His homilies
were delivered in a direct style that could be understood by the populace.
Their emphasis was on scripture rather than dogma and contained practical
examples. They were recorded by stenographers and then widely circulated.
One particular enemy John made in
Constantinople was in the Empress Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Arcadius, who
felt that she had been personally denounced because of her extravagant costume.
He also had an enemy in Theophilus, the archbishop of Alexandria who had
opposed his appointment to Constantinople. When John received four monks who
had been disciplined by Theophilus for supporting Oregin’s teachings he came
under further attack.
In 403, with support from Eudoxia,
the so called Synod of the Oak was convened and John was summoned to answer
charges. Ironically, Theophilus, who had been summoned to Constantinople to
stand trial on other charges, became one of the members of the tribunal which
was stacked with Egyptian bishops. John was found guilty, not on the charges
laid before him, but for not having responded to the summons to attend, and he
was banished from Constantinople. (11)
On the news of his exile, violent
demonstrations erupted in the city and John was called back by the Emperor
Arcadius almost immediately. Unfortunately his return to Constantinople was
short lived. He again provoked Eudoxia’s wrath after a silver statue of her was
erected near the cathedral, comparing her with Herodias raving for the head of John
the Baptist. Despite protestation from Innocent I, bishop of Rome (402-417), John was exiled a second time in 404 and died at
Comana in Ponus in 407. He came to be venerated as a saint shortly after his
death and his remains were returned to Constantinople in 438.
John’s most widely known legacy is
the Divine Liturgy which carries his name. Written c.398-404, it was initially
celebrated in the Great Church in Constantinople. By the time of Justinian, in
the sixth century, it was the normative liturgical form within the Byzantine
Empire and by about 1,000 it was universally celebrated in all Eastern
churches. There is some debate as to how much of the Liturgy was actually
written by John. While it adheres closely to the West Syrian liturgical rites
in use in Antioch, it was refined in Constantinople by John who revised the
prayers and rubrics. The Liturgy of St John Chrysostom “reflects a highly
refined aesthetic of beauty and majesty, tradition and mystery, and a highly
developed theology”. (12) It reflects the
work of the Cappadocian Fathers to combat heresy and define Trinitarian
theology for the Christian Church. The Greek teaching of the Trinity differs
from the western view of the Trinity as one God with three aspects. According
to Greek teaching God is essentially incomprehensible but can become known by
means of mystical experiences through the Creation, the Christ and the Holy
Spirit.
A brief mention should be made of a
somewhat controversial series of eight homilies delivered in Antioch in 386/7 that
have been translated into English as ‘Against the Jews’ but should probably more
correctly read as ‘Against Judaizing Christians’. The target group was
Christians, mainly society women, who enjoyed listening to both Christian and
Jewish liturgies, keeping the fasts of both traditions and observing both the Sabbath
and Sundays. This group was seen as making a greater show of ritual observance
over spiritual practice. These homilies were delivered in the conventional
manner of utilizing an uncompromising rhetorical form, and most scholars agree
that they should not be taken literally. An underlying premise is that the
rabbinic tradition is subordinate to the Levitical tradition continued by the
Christian priesthood. This Rabbinic-Levitical dispute actually dates back to
pre-Christian times.
John Chrysostom lived through a
crucial period in the history of Christianity which saw the transformation of
the early church of Christ and the Apostles into an institutionalised Church
aligned with imperial authority and power, vulnerable to both corruption from
within and to manipulation by ambitious rulers for their own advantage. In the
words of Karen Anderson, “Supremely a religion of adversity, it has never been
at its best in prosperity.” (13)
Through
his deep spirituality, shrewd wisdom and compassion, John remained true to the
fundamental principles of Christianity in the face of incredible pressures from
many sides. He played a significant role in keeping the institutional Church on
a Christian path at a time when it was in danger of losing its direction. His
golden mouth still speaks to this day through the celebration of the Eucharist
and his surviving writings.
Notes
(1) Catherine P. Roth in John Chrysostom – On Wealth and
Poverty, Creswood, N.Y., St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1981. p.8
(2) It should not be overlooked that
Christianity had spread well beyond the borders of the Roman Empire, and the
Roman emperor was not the first to adopt Christianity. King Arsacid in Armenia
converted to Christianity in 301, making Armenia the first country to
officially adopt Christianity. Ethiopia and Georgia adopted Christianity
shortly after.
Nira
& Michael Stone – The Armenians, Dublin, Chester Beatty Library,
2007.
(3) Eusebius “Tricenial
Orations” Life of Constantine (cited by Karen Anderson in Fields of Blood: Religion and the History
of Violence, London, Bodley Head, 2014.
p.139)
(4) St Jerome “Preface to the Vita Malchi
(cited by Hermann Dörries in Constantine
the Great, New York, Harper, 1972.
p.201)
(5) Eusebius 6:43
(cited by Karen Anderson in Fields of
Blood, (ib.id). p.149
(6)
In 451 the fourth Ecumenical Council was convened in Chalcedon to try and reach
a compromise but failed, resulting in a permanent rift between the orthodox and
Monophysite, or Chalcedonian and Non-Chalcedonian churches.
(8) There were two
important bodies of Christians in the East, the Nestorians and the
Miaphysites/Monophysites, who were not in full agreement with the Councils of
Ephesus and Chalcedon regarding the nature of Jesus.
*The Nestorians,
officially “Church of the East”, (spread Christianity throughout Asia), claimed
that Jesus had two distinct natures, one fully human and the other fully
divine. (but did affirm the oneness of Christ).
*The
Monophysites (Byzantine term), Miaphysites (their preferred term). Also called
Non-Chalcedonian Churches: (also sometimes referred to as the “Jacobite” Church
from 6th century), claimed that Christ is “one nature”, that one
nature being both divine and human in character.
*The orthodox
doctrine outlined at the Council of Chalcedon claimed that Christ had two
natures in one being. Communicattio
idiomatum or “exchange of properties” were terms referring to Christ’s
humanity and his divinity (such as Logos)
and could be applied to his human nature, and vice versa.
(9) Wendy Mayer &
Pauline Allen – John Chrysostom, London, Routledge, 2000. p.8
(10)
John Chrysostom: Seventh Sermon on the Parable of Lazarus and the rich man.
(11) Wendy Mayer &
Pauline Allen (op.cit.)
(13) Karen Anderson – A
History of God from Abraham to the Present: The 4,000-Year Quest for God,
London, Folio Society, 2014. p.120.
Bibliography
John Chrysostom
John
Chrysostom – On Wealth and Poverty, (Translated by Catharine P. Roth),
Creswood, N.Y., St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1981.
John
Chrysostom – Leaves from St. John Chrysostom, (Selected & translated
by Mary H. Allies), 1888.
John
Chrysostom – The Homilies of S. John Chrysostom, Archbishop of
Constantinople, On the Gospel of St. Matthew, (Translated by members of the
English Church), Oxford, Parker, 1851.
John
Chrysostom – The Divine Liturgy of Our Father Among the Saints John
Chrysostom, Jordanville, N.Y. 2013.
John
Chrysostom – The Divine Liturgy of Our Father Among the Saints John
Chrysostom, Eastern Press (Canadian Diocese), 2000.
Wendy
Mayer & Pauline Allen – John Chrysostom, London, Routledge, 2000.
J.
N. D. Kelly – Golden Mouth: the Story of John Chrysostom – Ascetic,
Preacher, Bishop, 1995.
Bruno
H. Vandenberghe_ John of the Golden Mouth, 1958.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostom (accessed 4/22/2014)
General Background
Anne
Marie B. Bahr, et al. (eds.) – Christianity: The Illustrated Guide to
2,000 Years of the Christian Faith, Elanora Heights, NSW, Millenium House, 2009.
N.
H. Baynes & H. St. L. Moss (eds.) – Byzantium: An Introduction to East
Roman Civilisation, Oxford University Press, 1949.
Steven
Runciman – Byzantine Civilisation, London, Methuen, 1961.
Peter
Brown – The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150-750, London, Folio Society,
2014.
Karen
Anderson – Fields of Blood: Religion and the History of Violence,
London, Bodley Head, 2014.
Karen
Anderson – A History of God From Abraham to the Present: The 4,000-Year
Quest for God, London, Heinemann, 1993.
Hermann
Dörries – Constantine the Great, New York, Harper, 1972.
Ian
Shevill (ed) – The Orthodox and Other Eastern Churches In Australia,
Sydney, Anglican Information Office, 1975
Liturgy
Geoffrey
Wainwright & Karen B. Westerfield Tucker (eds.) – The Oxford History of Christian
Worship, Oxford University Press, 2006.
http://www.liturgica.com/html/litEOLitEarly.jsp (accessed 5/3/2015)
I made a mistake with my citations. It should, of course, be Karen Armstrong, not Karen Anderson. One of the problems of using "cut and paste". Bata
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